Examinations and their substitutes in the United States

Isaac Leon Kandel, M.A., Ph.D. was an American educator born in Romania. He studied at Manchester, England, Columbia University, and the University of Jena, (Germany). For several years, he taught at schools in Ireland, then became a scholar and teaching professor at Columbia (1908–10). In 1914, Professor Kandel became a specialist of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. He was a contributor to several encyclopedias, and the author of several scholarly articles and books on education.